Assessment of LPG Safety Knowledge and Handling by Domestic Users
- Solomon Aidoo
- 2 days ago
- 20 min read
International Journal of Emerging Research in Engineering, Science, and Management Vol. 4, Issue 2, pp.40-50, Apr-Jun 2025. www.ijeresm.com eISSN – 2583-4894
1Richard Amorin, 2Eric Broni-Bediako, 3Eric Stemn
1,2Associate Professor, Department of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana.
3Senior Lecturer, Department of Environmental and Safety Engineering, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana.
1 ramorin@umat.edu.gh, 1ORCID: 0000-0002-6899-5628,
2ebroni-bediako@umat.edu.gh, 2ORCID:0000-0002-5837-2240,
3estemn@umat.edu.gh, 30000-0002-7432-0993
Abstract: Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is gaining high usage as a domestic fuel worldwide. The Government of Ghana is determined to increase access to 50% by 2030. However, due to its high flammability, unsafe gas usage has resulted in various casualties nationwide. This work, therefore, assessed the safety knowledge and handling of LPG across three cities in the Western Region of Ghana. A total of 1144 LPG users participated in the research. Information gathered included the origin and material used for cylinder manufacturing, cylinder integrity test, refilling, transportation, storage, leakage detection and rectification, cylinder maintenance, safety valves, and other accessories such as LPG hoses and burners. The assessment showed that most users lacked basic safety knowledge regarding safe gas handling. It was evident that 99.2% had never examined and pressure-tested their cylinders for integrity purposes, with 98.0% not knowing when their cylinders would be due for either disposal or a mandatory pressure test. Further, the majority transported and stored their gas cylinders incorrectly. Also, 30.4% have been using their hoses for ≥ 5 years, with the majority replacing them not based on the recommended usage period but rather on damage. These practices are alarming, warranting an urgent need to intensify safety education on the safe use of this greener fuel. Several practical implications of the research that can improve the safe handling and use of LPG at the household level have been discussed.
Keywords: Domestic Users, Leakage, LPG, Pressure Test, Storage, Transportation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a fuel gas that contains a flammable mixture of dominant hydrocarbon gases such as propane and/or butane [1, 2, 3]. The global consumption of LPG has been increasing, and it is projected to be one of the clean fossil fuels of the future due to its lower carbon footprint [4, 5]. In Africa, the adoption of LPG is relatively low. A study across 33 African countries revealed that over 90% of households relied on poor fuel sources such as firewood and charcoal as their primary cooking fuels [6]. However, in Ghana, the use of LPG is gradually becoming an integral component of the domestic energy mix. According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census, LPG as a primary source of cooking fuel increased from 18.2% in 2010 to 36.9% in 2021 [7]. Through its Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) policy, the Government is determined to expand access to 50% by 2030 [8]. Domestic LPG usage accounts for about 84% of all LPG usage in Africa [9]. The gas is usually stored and transported in pressurized bottles. Thus, the gas is stored under high pressure and at a temperature over its boiling point in the form of a liquid, and therefore, any leakage can cause it to change from liquid to steam and gas [2, 10]. The flammable nature of the gas makes its potential leakages a significant hazard, as it can result in explosions leading to many vital casualties, including burns, health-related issues, and even deaths [8, 11]. Several LPG accidents have claimed many lives and caused other injuries in Ghana [12]. The Reconstructive-Plastic-Surgery-and-Burns-Centre of Ghana has reported that LPG explosions annually account for 33% of all burns cases and 44% of burns-related deaths [13]. These explosions and related issues hinder SE4All, SDGs 7, 9, and 13, as they cause fear and panic among citizens and discourage them from switching to low-carbon-footprint fuels. The poor knowledge of handling and use of these LPG cylinders has been the primary cause of LPG-related accidents [14]. Therefore, this study assessed domestic users' LPG safety and handling knowledge. The study's outcome could be vital in informing policy review and implementation. In implementing the research, three major cities in the Western Region of Ghana (Takoradi, Tarkwa, and Asankrangua) were considered case study areas. The Western Region is endowed with many natural resources. Takoradi is noted for its fishing expeditions and oil and gas activities. The population of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan is 245,382, with Takoradi recording 50,065, according to the 2021 Population and Housing Census. The Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality, on the other hand, is reported to have a population of 218,664, with the urban population (including Tarkwa) being 129,046. Wassa Amenfi West Municipal is recorded to have a population of 129,882 with a metropolitan population of 55,516 (including Asankrangua) [15]. Both Tarkwa and Asankrangua are noted for their gold mining and farming activities. The average LPG usage as primary cooking fuel among urban households has been around 35%, while that of rural households has been about 6% [16].
2. METHODS
The survey adopted closed- and open-ended questionnaires as the primary data collection instrument. It was complemented by other literature data on the safe handling of LPG cylinders. A total of 1,144 respondents were engaged from three cities, namely, Takoradi, Tarkwa, and Asankrangwa. Data gathered included the origin and material used for cylinder manufacturing, years of cylinder usage, cylinder integrity test, refilling, transportation, storage, leakage detection and rectification, cylinder maintenance, safety valves, and other accessories such as LPG hose and burners. The collected data were subjected to statistical analyses in response to the research objectives.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A total of 1142 correctly completed responses were obtained from the survey undertaken across the three locations within the Western Region of Ghana. Tarkwa had the highest respondents, 48.7%, with Takoradi and Asankrangwa having 26.1% and 25.2%, respectively. Most respondents were highly educated, with 38% indicating they had completed tertiary education. Additionally, 28.8% of them have completed secondary education, with only 8.5% indicating no formal education. This suggests that the survey participants were well-educated and could read and write, thus contributing to the research, as most of them could read and write and therefore could understand the questionnaires to complete them. Additionally, the high literary level of the participants indicated their ability to read and understand the safe use of LPG for domestic purposes. The study results have been structured and presented around the major themes of the questionnaire. These central themes are: a) Usage experiences of LPG b) knowledge of LPG cylinders and safety requirements c) current condition of the LPG cylinder d) cylinder usage practices e) care and maintenance practices f) preparedness in case of a domestic LPG emergency
3.1. LPG Usage Experiences of the Participants
Four questions specific to domestic LPG and related accessories were used to assess the survey participants' experience using LPG for domestic purposes. The distributions of the responses to the questions are shown in Fig. 1 below. The figure shows that most respondents have been using LPG for a relatively short period. Specifically, 65.5% of respondents have been using LPG for less than five years, with the remaining 44.5% indicating they have used it for more than five years.
Again, only 9.0% of respondents had used LPG for over 10 years. This suggests that the use of LPG as a sustainable domestic energy source in the country is recent and requires further efforts to advance its use at the household level. When asked why they preferred LPG as a domestic fuel, efficiency had the highest response of 81.0%. This suggests that most of the survey participants know of and have experienced the efficiency of LPG as a domestic cooking fuel over other cooking fuel sources, including wood and charcoal, commonly used in Ghana. When asked what could cause them to stop the use of LPG and go back to unsustainable fuel sources, the price of LPG was cited by over 70% of the participants. Some respondents were explicit that they had stopped using LPG in the past and currently use it in addition to other fuel sources, specifically charcoal, due to the recent increase in the price of LPG. This suggests that price is a significant threat to the acceptance and use of LPG as a domestic fuel source. Therefore, in the Ghana government’s Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) policy that seeks to expand access to LPG to 50% by 2030, the price of LPG remains a significant threat to attaining the goal. It is therefore prudent for policies be put in place to manage the pricing concerns.
Regarding the participants' usage of LPG burners, the majority (77.3%) have used their current burners for less than five years, with 32.7% using them for over five years. This corresponds to the participants' experience with LPG usage. As earlier indicated, domestic use of LPG in Ghana involves using two types of burners, one where the burner is directly attached to the cylinder, and the other where a separate burner is connected to the cylinder through a hose. Fig. 2 shows the various cylinder types and modes of usage. It was revealed from the survey that 79.3% of the participants used a burner requiring the use of a flexible pressure hose. In contrast, the remaining 21.7% used a burner directly connected to the cylinder. Those whose burners involved using a hose were requested to share the duration of use of their current hose, and the responses have been shown in Fig. 1. The figure revealed that 76.2% have used their current hose for less than five years, while the remaining 23.8% have used it for over five years. Overall, the LPG usage experience of the participants suggests that LPG is becoming a domestic fuel source, including its accessories such as the cylinder, burner, and hose, and is recent. A further targeted effort is required to expand its use.
3.2. Participants’ Knowledge of their LPG Cylinder and Safety Requirements
The survey participants' knowledge of the LPG cylinder, its parts, and safety requirements was assessed. The results are presented in Fig. 3. The issues that were of concern included knowledge of cylinder brand and materials, Pressure Test Date (PTD), Safety Valve (SV) or Pressure Relief Valve (PRV), and hazards of overfilling the cylinder. The PRVs are conventionally mounted vertically to relieve internal pressure within the cylinder should there be an increase due to external factors, including thermal radiation impact. The results showed that most (over 60%) participants did not know their cylinder brand or its material. Furthermore, 91% of participants were explicit that they had never heard of the PTD, nor had any idea of basic and key information on their cylinder. This lack of knowledge of cylinder brand and material and PTD is worrying as it raises some safety concerns [17]. In Ghana, it has been reported that using uncertified cylinders and the expiry of PTD are significant causes of LPG-related accidents [14, 18]. Thus, improving the general population's knowledge of the safety requirements of domestic LPG cylinders and the need to subject their cylinders to routine testing and maintenance remains essential (See Fig. 4).
Regarding their knowledge of PRV, 81.2% indicated they knew of it, with the remaining 18.8% indicated their lack of knowledge. Similarly, 61.6% of the respondents indicated they knew some dangers associated with overfilling their LPG cylinders, whereas 38.4% of respondents lacked knowledge of any risks related to cylinder overfilling, indicating that overfilling the LPG cylinder presented no danger to them and their household. PRV is a safety flow control device for gas [19]. Thus, the lack of knowledge on the importance of PRV as a key safety device on the cylinder raises some safety concerns, requiring urgent attention. When users lack knowledge of PRV, they will not be able to identify the safety function of the PRV and determine whether the PRV is functional. Therefore, this lack of knowledge of PRV increases the risk of explosion and rupture of LPG cylinders at the household level and presents several public safety concerns. Thus, the government and local authorities should not only focus on expanding access to LPG as a domestic fuel, but also on improving the safety awareness regarding the use of LPG.
3.3. Conditions of the LPG Cylinder of the Participants
The survey also focused on evaluating the current conditions of the LPG cylinders of the survey participants, and responses to the different questions have been presented in Fig. 5. The figure shows that over 80% of the respondents have never replaced their cylinders. It was recorded that over 90% have been using their cylinders for over 10 years (see Fig. 1) without any safety or technical assessment. The National Petroleum Authority (NPA) of Ghana recommends that all LPG cylinders must not be used after ten years of manufacture for safety reasons [18]. However, this survey observed that the cylinder replacement period recommended by the NPA is not adhere to, and efforts should be made to enforce this recommendation. The Ghana Cylinder Manufacturing Company Limited also recommends that cylinders undergo compulsory examination by an expert after its tenth year [19]. However, this examination hardly occurs as over 91% of the respondents lack knowledge of PTD. Furthermore, 53% of respondents had their cylinders lacking Pressure Relief Valve Caps (PRVC), with the remaining 47% having pressure relief valve caps on their cylinders to protect the valves from dirt and damages.
A Safety Valve (SV) or Pressure Relief Valve (PRV) is installed on an LPG cylinder for safe refilling and gas release into or from it. This device automatically releases gas when the cylinder and content become overheated or over-pressurised to avoid rupture or explosion [20]. This valve must therefore be protected from any defect. From the survey, only 18% knew of this safety device, though it is visible on all cylinders. The presence of a safety PRV Rubber Seal (PRVRS), also known as an O-ring, washer, or bullnose, is installed to secure a leak-free connection, reducing friction, and providing a better connection between a cylinder and a regulator. This seal needs to be replaced at least at the point of every refilling, as it becomes brittle with time [21, 22, 23]. Thus, the lack of knowledge of PRV and the lack of PRVRS raises some safety concerns, requiring urgent attention. Again, for most cylinders (82%), their PTDs were invisible and could not be read on the cylinder.
Even for the 18% of the respondents who had the PTD visible on the cylinder, most (57.8%) of the PTD had expired. These results generally show a limited understanding of the relevance of the pressure test date, as the survey participants grossly overlook it. Therefore, as previously emphasised, improving safety awareness regarding the domestic use of LPG remains a priority and requires urgent attention, particularly considering the focus on expanding its access to about 50% by 2030.
3.4. Cylinder Usage Practices of the Participants
How the survey participants handle their LPG cylinders was also assessed, and the results are presented in Table 1. The issues that were of concern included the transportation of the cylinder after refilling, the capacity of refilling, the location of the cylinder at home, and how cylinder leakage is detected, among others. Even though a few respondents indicated they transport their cylinders in the vertical position (46.7%), the majority (53.2%) transport in the horizontal position, a practice considered unsafe. From literature, all refilled LPG cylinders must be transported in an upright position by approved vehicles. It is not recommended that they be transported in the enclosed boot of vehicles (See Fig. 6).
To prevent damage to the cylinders, the structure restraining the cylinders must be of steel, while the floor should be preferably made of wood. This ensures the gas does not get excited and expand due to movement, and/or the cylinder valve does not shear, propelling the cylinder to rocket. This may cause fatalities and damage properties [8, 24, 25, 26, 27]. A cylinder may be transported horizontally only when the pressure relief valve is on top of the cylinder, pointing into the sky. However, in Ghana, most LGP cylinders have their PRV on top; thus, when the cylinder is transported horizontally, the PRV will be to the side, in contrast to upwards. Again, in situations where it is impractical to transport the cylinder upright but horizontally, they must be for relatively minor cylinders and shorter distances.
It remains essential for the user to position the cylinder vertically upon their arrival and wait for some hours before it can be used. This allows the content to settle once the cylinder assumes an upright position. Specifically, the liquid must settle and rise before it can be used. However, it is common for most Ghanaian homes to immediately use their gas cylinders after refilling, even when the cylinder was transported in the horizontal position. Therefore, improving users' safety awareness regarding using LPG as a domestic fuel source remains essential. When asked the reasons for their preferred cylinder position during transportation, over 62% indicated convenience as a factor influencing their choice of the cylinder position during its transportation (See Fig. 7). Further interaction revealed that most domestic LPG users, due to a lack of available approved transportation, patronise the services of unapproved commercial passenger vehicles to transport their cylinders for refill or transport the cylinder in the trunk of private saloon cars. Only 3.2% transported their cylinders home by recommended practices.
To help manage the high coefficient of expansion of the LPG, it is generally recommended that LPG cylinders must not be filled beyond 80% of their capacity [28]. The purpose is to create a space to expand the liquid due to the impact of thermal radiation. From the survey, over 70% of the participants indicated they filled their cylinder during every refilling, without leaving any space for potential expansion of the LPG. This practice can be potentially hazardous in case of LPG expansion due to thermal changes, especially when it is considered that the temperature of the surroundings where the cylinders are kept remains high. Regarding where the participant kept their cylinder at home, the survey results, as shown in Table 1, show that the majority (64.3%) kept them inside their kitchen, either in the open space or in a cabinet, with the remaining 35.7% indicating they store their cylinders outside their kitchens (See Fig. 7).
According to the recommended standard on refilled LPG cylinders, they must be kept outdoors under a shed, secured/caged, and at least a metre from doors, windows, ducting, and air vents [29]. The storage of LPG cylinders in the kitchen is considered unsafe due to the potential of inadequate ventilation and exposure to a heat source, which can result in fire in case of gas leakage. However, from the survey, it was observed that the unsafe storage of LPG cylinders in the kitchen is a common practice, and this has been identified as a priority requiring urgent attention. Only 16.0% store their cylinders appropriately at home.
The high coefficient of expansion of LPG causes a unit of its liquid phase when released into the atmosphere as vapour to create over 250 times the same unit [28]. It is essential to detect a leak immediately after it occurs. Regarding how the survey participants detect a cylinder leak, smell was the most frequent method, being specified by over 90% of the participants. The use of smell to detect gas leakage is expected, considering the presence of mercaptans introduced into most domestic LP gases. However, users with a low sense of smell may miss the leakage. Again, some situations may limit the use of smell to detect leakage, including low level leakages and a change in wind direction, which blows the gas away from the user. Such a situation presents a high risk of explosion due to late detection of the leakage [8, 30].
The accumulation of such gases when it reaches its explosive limit (1.8% volume to 10.0% volume, depending on the composition) may explode in the presence of an ignition source [31, 32]. Thus, the use of smell to detect domestic LPG leakage, even though it is predominant across domestic users of LPG, remains problematic. Rather, the use of a sensor, which is narrowly used, is highly recommended. It is highly recommended that all cylinders be assessed and fixed by an approved body or expert to validate whether the cylinder is fit to avoid possible hazards [33]. Encouragingly, 84.7% seek experts’ services regarding leakage rectification, while 17.2% try to rectify the leakage independently.
Table 1. Participants’ cylinder usage practices
3.5. Cylinder Care and Maintenance Practices of the Participants
In Ghana, domestic LPG users own the cylinders and are therefore responsible for caring for them to ensure they are fit for purpose. However, government and regulatory bodies must provide users with the necessary guidance for effective compliance (transport, storage, usage, and maintenance) to guarantee fit-for-purpose conditions [28]. How the participants cared for and maintained their LPG cylinders and related accessories were assessed, and the result is shown in Table 2. This assessment focused on the frequency of cylinder replacement, the reasons for replacement, and specific maintenance activities, including caring for hoses, burners, and rubber seals.
According to ISO 10464 (Gas Cylinders -Refillable Welded Steel Cylinders For Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) - Periodic Inspection And Testing) [34], the United Nations Environment Programme Guidelines for Good Safety Practice in the LPG Industry, 2018 [35], and Asia Industrial Gases Association Reference Guide for Requalification of Gas Cylinders 2013 [26], a cylinder with a high level of integrity will have 15 years from the manufacturing date for compulsory requalification test, and 10 years after the first inspection date else 5 years -from manufacturing date time interval if it has suffered acceptable defects. The UN recommends a 5-year interval but 10 years if the gas lacks free water. The NPA of Ghana recommends 10 years of usage after manufacture [18] while the Ghana Cylinder Manufacturing Company Limited recommends compulsory examination by an expert after 10 years of usage [19].
Table 2. Participants' care and maintenance practices on their LPG cylinder and accessories
One of the significant causes of LPG cylinder accidents has been the use of uncertified cylinders or cylinders having expired PTD [15, 18]. However, based on the survey, it was evident that most people replace their cylinders purposely, not due to expiry reasons (1.9%) but rather due to damage (92.1%) as reported in Table 2. It was also evident that 99.2% have never pressure-tested or examined their cylinders for integrity purposes.
Again, 98.0% did not know when their cylinders would be due for either disposal or a mandatory pressure test date. This suggests that most cylinders in circulation may have various integrity challenges for safe usage. Generally, most domestic LPG accidents have been attributed to problems with LPG gas hoses and stoves [36]. Most hoses and regulators have various expiry dates printed on them. Hoses should be replaced more frequently due to possible frequent heat impacts and other defects like cuts, rodent attacks, and swelling [28]. According to the Singapore Civil Defence Force and the Liquid Gas UK Consumer Guidance Sheet 05 on LPG Hose and Tubing for Use with Vapour Offtake Cylinders 2020, LPG hoses and regulators are to have a lifespan of 5 years and 10 years, respectively, from the date of manufacture and not when they were used [37]. Again, rubber seals, burners, and hoses are all replaced only when damaged, in contrast to replacing them following their safety requirements.
Specifically, over 70% of the participants indicated they mostly replace their cylinder’s rubber when the seals get damaged; 74.9% replace their burner when it is completely damaged beyond use. Similarly, 62.5% of the participants were emphatic that they replaced their connecting hose following their damage due to burns, cracks, or breaks. Thus, there is generally a lack of routine maintenance practices for the LPG cylinders and their accessories. For maintenance purposes, most users (67.9%) adopted cleaning/dusting, while 43.9% frequently sprayed to reduce corrosion. 0.7% indicated they had no idea on how to maintain their cylinders.
3.6. Preparedness of the Participants in the Case of a Domestic LPG Emergency
LPG fires are predominantly extinguished with chemical dry powder extinguishers (Type B), and in minor situations, by wet clothes, salt, or baking soda [36, 38]. The sure way to control LPG fire is to know what to do when it starts [36]. The preparedness of the survey participants to respond to LPG-related emergencies was therefore assessed using three questions: their knowledge of fighting LPG fire, specific extinguisher they know and can use, and their knowledge of emergency responders to call in case of LPG fires at their homes. The responses to these three questions have been presented in Fig. 8. Of the 990 participants who responded to whether they knew how to fight LPG fires, 73% answered in the affirmative, whereas 27% indicated they had no experience and knowledge of battling LPG fires. The figure is generally encouraging, as most respondents knew how to fight LPG fires and had used some extinguishers before. Regarding the extinguishers they have experience with, the portable fire extinguishers had the highest selection of 68%, followed by the fire blanket being selected by 22% of the respondents. 64% of the respondents knew where to contact for help in case of LPG fire emergencies, whereas the remaining 36% lacked knowledge of where to contact for help in case of LPG fire emergencies.
4. Conclusion
From the survey, it is clear that most domestic users of LPG in the three cities lack basic knowledge of safe gas usage. Most cylinders in circulation lacked significant inscriptions to ascertain their actual state. They also have expired service lives and wrong refilling, transportation, storage, and usage protocols. As the Government of Ghana is determined to increase access to 50% by 2030, this should be commensurate with sufficient safety protocols to minimise the LPG-related casualties recorded in the country. It is key that most of the cylinders must regularly undergo frequent technical examinations for fit-for-purpose verification, since most of them lack mandatory inscriptions to ascertain their actual state.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research team would like to acknowledge the entire field survey team, especially Socrates Lawey, Alvin Kwarteng Kobi, Isaach Kweku Hackman, Emmanuel Karikari Duodu, Joel Mensah and Collins Amoah, for assisting with data collection.
FUNDING INFORMATION
The research team acknowledges the funding support received from the Ghana Chamber of Mines Tertiary Education Fund (Faculty Research Fund) for this study. The funding body supported the team in collecting, analysing, and writing the manuscript.
ETHICS STATEMENT
This study did not involve human or animal subjects and, therefore, did not require ethical approval.
STATEMENT OF CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare no conflicts of interest related to this study.
LICENSING
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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